The third century was a tumultuous time for the Roman Empire. 30 emperors reigned during this century, but few died peacefully. Most were victims of bloody coups which triggered further violent struggles for the throne. Barbarian hordes took advantage of the chaos by encroaching upon the borders of the Empire. At times, it seemed the Empire teetered on the verge of collapse.
But the trajectory of the Roman Empire was dramatically altered in 284 when Diocletian assumed the throne. The son of slaves, Diocletian was a natural leader who rose quickly through the ranks of the military. When the previous emperor was murdered, Diocletian’s troops acclaimed him as the new sovereign. Historians consider Diocletian a highly effective emperor who managed to restore order & stability to the empire.
The Roman Empire then stretched from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to Syria. Diocletian knew that one man could scarcely govern this vast realm. So, he appointed Maximian, one of his trusted officers, to govern the western Empire while Diocletian himself ruled the east from his capital at Nicomedia in Asia Minor. (Oddly, Diocletian only visited Rome once, at the very end of his reign. He spent much of his time fighting on the frontiers.) Both men took the title of “Augustus” – although it was clear that Diocletian held the superior power.
The Roman Empire had long been afflicted by wars of succession which routinely erupted following the death of the emperor. Diocletian wanted to implement a system whereby the emperor had a clear & competent successor in order to ensure the peaceful transition of power.
To this end, each Augustus chose a subordinate called a “Caesar.” The younger Caesar would be assigned their own territory to govern & defend. They would eventually assume higher office upon the death or abdication of their senior Augustus. In the West, Maximian chose as Caesar Constantius Chlorus, a commander who had led successful campaigns in Britain and Gaul. Diocletian selected an officer named Galerius.
In 303, near the end of his reign, Diocletian unleashed the last & most brutal persecution of Christians. His motivations were not at all clear. Diocletian himself was a committed pagan, but heretofore had shown no hostility towards the fast-growing Christian community. His wife Prisca and daughter Valeria were even thought to be Christians!
But suddenly, the emperor implemented harsh measures against the followers of Jesus. They were commanded to offer sacrifices to the traditional Roman gods. Those who refused would face severe consequences: confiscation of property, torture & even execution. Many churches were destroyed, and the scriptures were consigned to the flames. Thousands of Christians perished.
His health failing, Diocletian abdicated from the imperial throne in 305 & forced his fellow Augustus Maximian to do the same. Power passed into the hands of Constantius Chlorus in the west & Galerius in the east. Galerius eagerly persisted in the persecution of Christians. He sought to completely exterminate what he regarded as a pestilent superstition which threatened the unity of the empire.
In the western provinces of Britain and Gaul, Constantius showed more tolerance. When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was hailed as emperor by the army. Like his father, Constantine showed little enthusiasm for the oppression of Christians. What is now known as the Great Persecution finally came to end in 311 when Galerius, nearing death, issued an edict of toleration.
Diocletian’s plans for the peaceful transition of power would not be realized. Constantine methodically maneuvered to consolidate his power over the entire Empire. In 312, he led his armies towards Rome to confront a rival named Maxentius. On the eve of battle, Constantine had a vision of a Christian symbol in the sky with the words “in this sign conquer.” The following day, his armies routed Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Constantine regarded this victory as proof of the superiority of the Christian god.
Constantine’s conversion was a decisive moment in history. Under Diocletian and Galerius, Christians had been martyred by the thousands. Those who were Roman citizens were given a relatively quick & merciful death by beheading. Less fortunate believers were torn to pieces by wild beasts in the arena. Still others were burned or boiled alive. Suddenly, Christianity became the favored religion of the Empire.
Eusebius was a contemporary and biographer of Constantine. He served as the bishop of Caesarea from 314 AD until his death in 339. Eusebius famously composed his Ecclesiastical History, a comprehensive account of the church from Christ until Constantine. This work gained for Eusebius the title “the Father of Church History.” Ecclesiastical History contains numerous extended quotations from earlier sources which would otherwise be lost in the mists of time. Without Eusebius, our knowledge of early church history would be greatly impoverished.
Eusebius provides us with an extended discussion regarding the status of the New Testament canon. He helpfully divides Christian writings into four separate categories.
The first category are the books universally recognized as authoritative throughout the church: the four gospels, Acts, the 13 epistles of Paul (plus Hebrews, which Eusebius attributed to Paul), 1 John, 1 Peter and Revelation.
Eusebius then lists five books which he describes as “disputed by some”: James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2&3 John. Eusebius indicates that these books were generally recognized by Christians as sacred scripture. However, a small minority had expressed doubts about their authenticity. They were uncertain whether these writings really did come from the apostles Peter & John, or from James & Jude the brothers of Jesus.
The third category contains books which were not considered canonical but nonetheless were orthodox and helpful for the edification of the church. These writings include The Shepherd of Hermas, The Apocalypse of Peter, The Epistle of Barnabus & the Didache.
Oddly, Eusebius also mentions the book of Revelation in this category, writing ‘some reject it, while others count it among the acknowledged books.” It seems that Eusebius personally had reservations about the place of Revelation in the canon, even while recognizing that it was universally accepted throughout the church.
Eusebius’ final category were heretical books including The Gospel of Thomas and The Gospel of Peter. These writings were falsely attributed to the apostles and contained gnostic teachings. Such works “must be shunned as altogether wrong and impious.”
The testimony of Eusebius is another key piece of evidence in the development of the New Testament canon. The 22 books which Eusebius lists as universally recognized account for more than 97% of our New Testament! The remaining 5 books were widely recognized as authoritative, even though some harbored doubts.
Sociologist Rodney Stark estimates that in 300 AD, Christians accounted for about 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. So, in an empire of 60 million there were roughly 6 million followers of the Messiah. These people were an often-despised minority amidst a sea of paganism. They were spread out over thousands of miles in an era when travel was difficult & dangerous. And yet, despite these obstacles, the church arrived at widespread agreement regarding which books should be recognized as sacred scripture. This is a remarkable fact of history.
In 330, Constantine established a new capital on the shores of the Bosporus – the waterway between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. This city had previously been known as Byzantium, but would now be called Constantinople, the city of Constantine. For over a thousand years, Constantinople would serve as the capital of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453 and renamed Istanbul.
Constantine ordered Eusebius to produce 50 copies of the scriptures for the new churches springing up in growing metropolis of Constantinople. These Bibles contained both the Old and New Testaments in the Greek language. The New Testament almost certainly contained the same 27 books which Eusebius listed as either universally or widely acknowledged – the very same books which we find in our New Testament today.
The production and use of these Bibles would certainly have given ordinary Christians a clear idea of which books were included in the scriptures. The process of canonization was nearly at an end.
